Editorial
The landscape of education and…
Introduction
As teachers, when we think about feedback in a classroom setting, we probably think about the external feedback provided by us and peers for individuals to improve their learning. However, such external feedback alone may not lead to enhancement in learning (Nicol, 2020). Researchers argue that more research is needed to investigate how students appreciate and make sense of feedback, and subsequently act according to feedback (Haughney et al., 2020; van der Kleij & Lipnevich, 2021). Students need to make sense of the external feedback by comparing the feedback with their own work and generating internal feedback (Nicol, 2019). Carless (2016) defines self-generated feedback as “the inner dialogue or self-monitoring in which students are engaged when they are tackling a task” (p. 4). In addition, Evans (2013) adds that time is an essential element for students to make sense of external feedback and develop self-regulatory skills to be applied to other new learning contexts.
The literature provides evidence to support an interconnection between feedback and self-regulated learning (SRL) (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). SRL is defined “as the degree to which students are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process” (Zimmerman, 2008, p. 167). Thus, as teachers, with well-crafted learning tasks, we are likely to facilitate our students’ inner dialogues to generate internal feedback to appreciate, understand and apply feedback. As a result, they can become metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their learning. This can be achieved by adopting a 3A approach (Appreciate, Appraise and Apply) in our lessons.
Appreciate Feedback
Carless and Boud (2018) define appreciating feedback as “both students recognising the value of feedback and understanding their active role in its processes” (p. 1316). However, Winstone and Nash (2023) make it clear that students may not want to receive feedback and that psychological factors determine if feedback should even be given. For instance, students may experience discomfort in receiving critical feedback from teachers and peers. Feedback should be an honest appraisal that is supportive and constructive (Xu & Careless, 2017). We play an important role in helping feedback givers to give supportive feedback that is sensitive to students’ emotions. In addition, we can encourage students to ask themselves the following questions:
- Do I want this feedback? Why?
- Do I intend to improve my learning with the feedback? Why?
This is a useful strategy for students to self-generate internal feedback to surface affective issues in responding to feedback. It provides an opportunity for us to help them manage their emotions and enhance their appreciation of feedback. In turn, they are becoming more motivationally active learners because their self-efficacy is enhanced (Turda et al., 2021).
Appraise Feedback
Winstone and Nash (2023) stress that when feedback is being appreciated by students, they are willing to invest sufficient cognitive effort to appraise or make sense of feedback. Feedback is deemed useful when students appraise it positively (Lizzio & Wilson, 2008). This can be affected by their perceptions of the validity of feedback and the credibility of its giver (Brown & Zhao, 2023). Thus, we need to provide valid, relevant, and understandable feedback for students’ learning.
Robinson et al. (2013) emphasize the importance of equipping students with the skills of making sense of received feedback for effective enactment of feedback. Hence, we should set aside time during lessons for students to interpret and clarify feedback. We can encourage students to ask themselves the following questions:
- Do I understand the feedback?
- Is the feedback useful for my learning? Why?
- What are my mistakes?
- Do I need to seek clarification of the feedback?
As a result, they generate internal feedback to make sense of external feedback. They track their own performance processes and outcomes, aligning external and internal feedback. This enables their metacognitive monitoring process, facilitating them to be more metacognitively active learners in their own learning.
Apply Feedback
After appraising feedback, students are expected to apply it to improve their work, thereby closing a feedback loop (Boud & Molloy, 2013). Shute (2008) stresses that students need opportunities and means to act on feedback. Thus, we should give students similar tasks for them to enact feedback during lessons. We can guide students to ask themselves the following questions:
- How do I make specific changes in my work according to the feedback?
- When can I apply the feedback?
In their inner dialogues for self-evaluation, they generate internal feedback to compare their performance with a standard. When students attempt to apply feedback, they need to change their behaviour in ways that follow the feedback (Winstone & Nash, 2023). For example, they adopt a new strategy to complete the given task according to the feedback. When students perceive themselves as a change agent for their own learning through the enactment of feedback, they become more behaviorally active participants during lessons.
An Example
Let us elaborate on the use of the 3A approach in a Mathematics lesson. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher can lead the students to set personal learning goals for what they will be learning. When students receive feedback during the lesson, the teacher can encourage them to reflect on how the feedback can help them achieve their learning goals. This facilitates their self-generation of internal feedback, enhancing their appreciation of feedback and motivating them to apply feedback.
Next, the students can use a checklist provided by the teacher to appraise feedback. They should be given sufficient time to make sense of and clarify feedback with the help of their classmates and teacher. This enhances their competencies of appraising feedback such as metacognition.
Lastly, students should be given similar tasks (e.g., similar Mathematics questions) to enact the feedback. This gives them an opportunity to refine their methods of solving problems in the process of applying feedback. This motivates them to take action to refine their behaviour for learning.
Conclusion
Taras and Wong (2023) stress that internal and external feedback inform SRL and the choices that students make at different levels such as educational, cognitive, and emotional levels. Thus, we need to facilitate students’ SRL through their internal feedback. The 3A approach is a useful strategy to facilitate students’ self-generation of internal feedback to enhance SRL. It can be used in lessons across disciplines. At the initial stage, it requires time, attention, and well-planned preparation for the 3A approach to be implemented often enough for routinization. When it becomes a habit for students to ask themselves key questions to appreciate, appraise and apply feedback, they become more effective in generating internal feedback to enhance SRL.
References
Boud, D., and E. Molloy. 2013. “Rethinking Models of Feedback for Learning: The Challenge of Design.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6): 698–712.
Brown, G. T., & Zhao, A. (2023). In defence of psychometric measurement: a systematic review of contemporary self-report feedback inventories. Educational Psychologist, 1-15.
Carless, D. (2016). Feedback as Dialogue, In M. A. Peter (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory (pp. 1- 6). Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media.
Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: enabling uptake of feedback. Assessment & evaluation in higher education, 43(8), 1315-1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1463354
Evans, C. (2013). Making Sense of Assessment Feedback in Higher Education. Review of Educational Research, 83(1), 70-120.
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of educational research, 77(1), 81-112.
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Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K. (2008). Feedback on assessment: Students’ perceptions of quality and effectiveness. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(3), 263–275.
Nicol, D. (2019). Reconceptualising feedback as an internal not an external process. Italian Journal of Educational Research, 71–83. https://ojs.pensamultimedia.it/index.php/sird/article/view/3270.
Nicol, D. (2020): The power of internal feedback: exploiting natural comparison processes. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 46(5), 756-778. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2020.1823314
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Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153-189.
Taras, M., & Wong, H. M. (2023). Student Self-Assessment: An Essential Guide for Teaching, Learning and Reflection at School and University. Taylor & Francis.
Turda, E. S., Ferenț, P., Claudia, C., & Sebastian Turda, E. (2021). The impact of teacher’s feedback in increasing student’s self-efficacy and motivation. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences, 104.
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Winstone, N. E., & Nash, R. A. (2023). Toward a cohesive psychological science of effective feedback. Educational Psychologist, 58(3), 111-129.
Xu, Y., & Carless, D. (2017) Only true friends could be cruelly honest’: cognitive scaffolding and social-affective support in teacher feedback literacy. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42(7), 1082-1094.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166–183.